# Brazil Primary Enrollment Rates: Multi-Source Historical Comparison (1857-2015) Prepared using Claude Sonnet 4.5 This dataset combines three complementary sources of primary and elementary school enrollment rates in Brazil, offering comprehensive historical coverage spanning over 150 years of educational development. ## Data Sources ### 1. Paglayan (APSR) | 1857-2010 (154 years) **Metric**: Primary enrollment ratio **Calculation**: - Numerator: Students enrolled in primary education - Denominator: Population aged 5-14 years **Source**: Paglayan, A. S. (2021). The Non-Democratic Roots of Mass Education: Evidence from 200 Years. *American Political Science Review*, 115(1), 179–198. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055420000647 **Coverage**: 154 years of historical data (1857-2010) **Notes**: Longest time series, captures 19th and 20th century educational expansion --- ### 2. Kang et al. (FGV-IBRE) | 1933-2010 (78 years) **Metric**: Gross enrollment rate - Elementary education (*Ensino Fundamental*) **Calculation**: - Numerator: Students enrolled in elementary education (grades 1-9, encompassing both primary and lower secondary levels) - Denominator: Population aged 7-14 years **Source**: Kang, Thomas; Felix, Nilson; Paese, Luís (2021). Late and unequal: enrolments and retention in Brazilian education, 1933-2010. *Revista de História Económica / Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History*, 39(2), 191-218. **Methodological Note**: https://ibre.fgv.br/observatorio-produtividade/artigos/relatorio-metodologico-dados-historicos-de-educacao-no-brasil (Last updated: May 15, 2023) **Coverage**: 78 years of data (1933-2010) **Notes**: Most comprehensive institutional source; includes both primary and lower secondary enrollment --- ### 3. PNAD (IBGE via Base dos Dados) | 1992-2015 (20 years) **Metric**: Net school attendance rate **Calculation**: - Numerator: Individuals aged 5-14 currently attending school (`frequenta_escola == "sim"`) - Denominator: Total population aged 5-14 years **Source**: Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios (PNAD), Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE), accessed via Base dos Dados. **Coverage**: 20 years of survey data (1992-2015) **Data Gaps**: Missing years: 1994, 2000, 2010 (PNAD was not conducted in these years) **Notes**: Household survey data; provides contemporary validation for historical sources --- ## Key Methodological Differences | Dimension | Paglayan | Kang et al. | PNAD | |-----------|----------|-------------|------| | **Age Range** | 5-14 years | 7-14 years | 5-14 years | | **Educational Level** | Primary only | Elementary (primary + lower secondary) | School attendance (any level) | | **Rate Type** | Enrollment ratio | Gross enrollment rate | Net attendance rate | | **Can exceed 100%?** | Yes | Yes (due to grade repetition) | No | | **Time Period** | 1857-2010 | 1933-2010 | 1992-2015 (gaps: 1994, 2000, 2010) | ### Important Considerations 1. **Different age ranges**: Paglayan and PNAD use population aged 5-14, while Kang et al. use 7-14. This affects comparability, especially in early childhood enrollment. 2. **Educational scope**: - Paglayan captures primary education specifically - Kang et al. includes both primary (grades 1-5) and lower secondary (grades 6-9) - PNAD measures school attendance regardless of level 3. **Gross vs. Net rates**: - Paglayan and Kang report gross enrollment (can exceed 100% when students are older/younger than official age) - PNAD reports net attendance (bounded at 100%) 4. **Historical context**: Brazil's educational system underwent major reforms, including: - Creation of *Ensino Fundamental* (8 years) in 1971 - Extension to 9 years in 2006 - These changes affect cross-source comparability ## Citation If using this combined dataset, please cite all three sources: **Paglayan:** Paglayan, A. S. (2021). The Non-Democratic Roots of Mass Education: Evidence from 200 Years. *American Political Science Review*, 115(1), 179–198. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055420000647 **Kang et al.:** Kang, T., Felix, N., & Paese, L. (2021). Late and unequal: enrolments and retention in Brazilian education, 1933-2010. *Revista de História Económica / Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History*, 39(2), 191-218. **PNAD:** Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE). Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios (PNAD), 1992-2015. Accessed via Base dos Dados. --- **Compiled by**: Tales Mançano **Last Updated**: January 22, 2026 Prepared using Claude Sonnet 4.5

Este gráfico apresenta uma análise comparativa de duas séries históricas fundamentais para o estudo da educação no Brasil, evidenciando como diferentes escolhas metodológicas impactam a percepção do avanço educacional: Metodologia de Paglayan (2024): A autora utiliza como métrica a matrícula no ensino primário dividida pela população total na faixa de 5 a 14 anos. Como apontado na discussão, essa escolha impõe um "vínculo" rígido ao denominador: se um estudante conclui o primário e avança para o ensino secundário antes dos 14 anos, ele deixa de ser contabilizado no numerador (matrícula primária), mas permanece no denominador (população 5-14). Isso tende a subestimar a cobertura real em sistemas onde a progressão para o ensino médio é mais rápida ou onde a estrutura do ensino primário é mais curta que o intervalo de 10 anos da base populacional. Metodologia de Kang et al. (2021): Os autores calculam a Taxa Bruta de Escolarização (Gross Enrollment Ratio - GER) para o Ensino Fundamental. A GER é definida como o total de matrículas no nível de ensino (independentemente da idade do aluno) dividido pela população na idade teórica correspondente a esse nível. No caso brasileiro, o uso da GER permite que a taxa ultrapasse 100% (conforme visível no gráfico a partir de 1990), capturando de forma mais precisa o esforço de atendimento do Estado, inclusive de alunos com distorção idade-série e repetentes que ainda estão cursando o nível primário/fundamental.

Paglayan 2022 - Education or Indoctrination Primary School Enrollment Rate acording to her dataser

Compilation of various data source, including the Anuário Estatístico Brasileiro, MaduroJunior2007, Durham2003, Kang Paese 2003, and INEP

Public vs. Private Number of Enrollments in Primary + Secondary Scholl in Brazil (1959-2007). Source: MaduroJunior20007